An Analysis of Womens Mindset About Plastic Surgery Essay Example for Free

An Analysis of Womens Mindset About Plastic Surgery Essay Based on Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia stated that beauty is a value that related to emotional aspect that mean vitality, fertility, health, happiness, goodness, and love. â€Å"Beauty is commonly defined as a characteristic present in objects, such as nature, art work, and a human person, that provides a perceptual experience of pleasure, joy, and satisfaction to the observer, through sensory manifestations such as shape, color, and personality. Beauty thus manifested usually conveys some level ofharmony amongst components of an object† (New World Encyclopedia). Thomas Aquinas (1225 1274), wrote on the essence of beauty. He thought that beauty was the result of three prerequisites: wholeness (lat. integritas) or perfection, harmony (lat. proportio) and clarity or brightness† (Pentti Rautio, 2007). For many centuries, people and philosophers have expressed their definition of beauty. They show their own argument with different definition. However, nowadays we can not get the really means of beauty, because beauty has been lost over time. It just leaves a word ( Nancy Etcoff, 1999, p. 69). Everyone want to be beautiful, especially for women. They make themselves as beautiful as they can. For being beautiful, they have an icon to be followed. They use a Barbie dolls as a fashion icon because they think that Barbie is the image of beauty woman. Barbie has thin and tall body, flawless skin, long hair and big eyes. It shows that Barbie is perfect creature. Because of it, Barbie has affected a lot of women through its beauty. Barbie become the image of beauty by its history. Barbie is named by Ruth Handler which comes from his daughter’s name Barbara. Barbara is the same as another child that play with a toys but she always use a paper to make a dolls. During a trip to Europe with her child Barbara in 1956, Ruth Handler came across a German and found a doll called Bild Lilli. The Bild Lilli doll was very popular at that time, it was made based on a character in a comic strip drawn by Reinhard Beuthin for the newspaper Die Bild-Zeitung. In 1955, The Bild Lilli doll was initially sold to adults and became popular with children who enjoyed dressing up. On her return to the United States, Ruth Handler tried to redesign the Bird Lilly doll with help from Jack Ryan that works as an engineer. Moreover, the doll that was redesign by Ruth handler was given a new name ‘Barbie’, after Ruth Handler’s daughter Barbara. The Barbie doll made its first debut at the American International Toy Fair in New York on March 9, 1959. This date is also used as Barbie’s birthday. The Bird Lilli doll production was stopped in 1964 and the first Barbie doll wore a black and white zebra striped swimsuit and signature topknot ponytail. The doll was marketed as a â€Å"Ten-age Fashion Model† with her clothes created by Charlotte Johnson. The first Barbie dolls were manufactured in Japan, with their clothes hand-stitched by Japanese home workers. Around 350,000 Barbie dolls were sold during the first year of production. Barbie was the first toy that has a marketing strategy on television advertising. It is estimated that over a billion Barbie dolls have been sold out in over 150 countries and every second three Barbie dolls are sold. Barbie products include not only the range of dolls with their clothes and accessories, but also a large range of Barbie branded goods such as books, apparel, cosmetics and video games. Barbie has appeared in a series of animated films and is a supporting character in â€Å"Toy Story 2† and â€Å"Toy Story 3†. Barbie has been given honors and become cultural icon that is rare in the toy world. In 1974 a section of Times Square in New York City was renamed Barbie Boulevard for a week. In 2009, Barbie celebrated her 50th birthday. The celebrations included a runway show in New York for the Mercedes-Benz Fashion Week and others event that used Barbie as the icon (James Penn, 2001). Barbie became a popular toy in America and the figure that was used by Mattel dolls and accessories. For five years, Barbie has been an important part of toy fashion doll market. However, behind its popularity, Barbie also became controversies because its life style. From a young age, children play with toys like Barbie dolls and burly action figures, with bodies that are physically impossible to achieve. Exposure to these â€Å"ideals† is damaging to the self-esteem of youths† (MelodyBee, 2008). Usually, most of children play Barbie, especially for girls. They make Barbie as beautiful as they can. However, playing a Barbie doll can give bad influence for children. The Barbie’s clothes or the other things in Barbie’s world have affected the girls who playing Barbie think how importance of physical appearance. Barbie has affected them in terms of fashion. They be dressed precocious because the influence of Barbie. Without realizing it, they are growing-up skipper. According to Marilyn Ferris Motz, he suggested, â€Å"Barbie has other messages for us and that the doll’s influence is more problematic, especially for children. † It means that Barbie has bad side effect for children. Not only children, but nowadays the girls or women also make Barbie as woman figure that they want. Because of the figure of Barbie and other figures of beauties, women are convinced to believe that one must look like these images to be beautiful. The easiest way to achieve this is by having plastic surgery. Plastic surgery is a type of surgery that can involve both women’s appearance and ability to function. Society today has influence women to believe that in order for a person to look beautiful, they must look like the images that are seen on television, in movies, and on the cover of magazines. Some of them are even willing to suffer in order to achieve their desired beauty. Although plastic surgery can improve women’s appearance, but it can induce a lot of detriments which may lead to dangerous risk, even death. From the description, I will analyze women’s mindset about plastic surgery.

Rare Aging Disease Essay Example for Free

Rare Aging Disease Essay A 12 year old girl named Ontlametse Phalatse lives in Hebron, a small town just north of Johannesburg, South Africa. When she gets home from school, she does homework, watches tv, does her daily chores, and sometimes helps her mother cook. Ontlametse has bright plans for the future, to become a psychologist. This seemingly ordinary child is also known as the only living black person with the disease known as Progeria. This rare disease is a genetic condition that’s speeds up the aging process. There were only two other black children that were diagnosed with the condition, but they died. Ontlametse and a white child are the only Africans diagnosed and they both live in South Africa. They may live there because South Africa has some of the best medical care on the continent. Most children with Progeria die between the ages of 8 and 21, usually suffering from heart failure, strokes, and high blood pressure. By the age of three months Ontlametse suffered constant rashes, and before she was one year old her hair was falling out. Ontlametse At the age of six she was enrolled in school, where teachers and classmates scorned her because they thought she had AIDS. Ontlametse was not diagnosed until she was 10, when a doctor friend hinted on the condition to her mother. Even though she has this condition Ontlametse is a bright and strong little girl. She says â€Å"I don’t care what people say about me† referring to the mean classmates, but she says that she has two friends in her class. At school Ontlametse is self conscious about her bald head and always wears a hat, that’s why one of the things on her wish list is a specially designed wig to wear when she’s not at home. Ontlametse calls herself the first lady because she is the only black child with this condition. Ontlametse says she wants to be a psychologist when she grows up so that she can help others accept themselves for the way that they are, just like she does. This dream of the future would require a miracle knowing that she may only have a couple more years to live. Every school holiday, Ontlametse flies to the Progeria Research Foundation at Children’s Hospital in Boston, Massachusetts. Here she participates in research were she has access to cutting edge drugs. I think that this article is really shocking, interesting and sad. This little girl is the only black person with Progeria on the whole planet. I have seen a show about this condition on tv, there was a three day convention that brought together all of the children with this condition. It was really shocking to see these young children looking like old people and having all of the health related issues that old people have, they are so small and fragile. Even though Ontlametse has all these problems she still attends school, does chores, has dreams, and is so strong, which is very inspiring. She does not let this condition bring her down, she knows that it’s a part of her and she wants to be a model for others to accept themselves as they are. This article is also saddens me because in reality this little girl, so full of life and personality, may only have a few more years left to live.

The International Financial Reporting Standards In Russia

The International Financial Reporting Standards In Russia International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) and their predecessor, International Accounting Standards (IAS) is gaining in worldwide recognition. All publicly traded companies in the EU must adopt them by 2005 and many other countries either have adopted them or plan to do so in the near future. After break up of Soviet Union, Russia has experienced a lot of turmoil and changes both political and economical the country has struggled to get rid of its socialist past and it has now evolved to be a more important partner in international affairs and economics. The need to develop the modern accounting system has therefore been obvious and the country had two choices: to develop its own system or to adopt an existing one, like IFRS. In 2002, the Russian Prime Minister announced that all Russian companies and banks must prepare their financial statements in accordance with international standards starting January 1, 2004. Implementing that decision will not be easy, for a variety of reasons. Not all international standards have been translated into Russian. Many Russian accountants are not sufficiently familiar with international standards to implement them. Some Russian universities have only recently started teaching international standards and the continuing education programs of the various Russian accounting associations are not yet prepared to offer comprehensive courses on international standards. Current Russian accounting standards conflict with international standards in several important ways and these conflicts will not be resolved in the near future. This project paper considers the issues that arise when implementing new accounting regulations, some of which are not new and have been covered in the literature, but others of which are particular to the implementation of IFRS reporting. Te method of implementation, the scope of IFRS, particular issues with local accounting practice and IFRS, the issues of enforcement of compliance with IFRS and its relationship with audit, the link between IFRS reporting and taxation and the provision of education and training are all considered. There is also review of the state of preparedness of local group listed entities with respect to the implementation of IFRS reporting. There are many research areas for accounting research where the work could also inform the practice of IFRS accounting. The paper provides a contribution by highlighting how one country has moved to implement the requirement for group listed enterprises to prepare IFRS accounts and the issues that then arise for legislators, preparers and users. Introduction of the study Background of the study Globalization is making a dramatic impact on the world economy, borders are getting less and less relevant and corporation and trade between companies situated on different continents is now very common. More and more companies have become global in their commercial activities and international trade with shares and credits is constantly increasing. As companies and capital needs have left the national level, capital internalization has become a necessity. The demand for an open financial market is now stronger than ever. Globalization makes comparability and harmonization of the accounting and financial reporting top priority. The goal of the EU is to create a free market where capital labor, goods and services are to move freely. With the common currency, the European market has become more transparent for companies and it has made it easier to analyze business opportunities within the EU. The implementation of International Accounting Standards (IAS) and the International financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) will further improve the transparency of companies information and also be an important step in the EUs commitment for a common European capital market. For investors and lenders it is important to have comparable and quality information and this can only be achieved if countries cooperate in creating a common system like IAS/IFRS. After the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1992, Russia had to change its economic system from a planned economy to a market economy. In a commend economy the means of production are in public ownership, the state dominates the economy, and economy activity is supposed to respond to state direction. By contrast, in a market economy the means of the means of production are mainly in private ownership, the state creates the legal framework in which economic activity takes place, and economic place supposed to respond to market forces. Such a transition obviously has important consequences for accounting, which ceases to be an instrument of the state economic administration and instead becomes an instrument at the disposal of the business community. New types of companies and enterprises desperately needed new accounting standards. In a market economy the objective of companies financial reporting is to give useful information to present and potential investors, creditors and other interested parties to facilitate their decisions. Though until now the role and the financial reporting still remains the State, in the person of the tax authorities. Nevertheless, voices of the other interest parties investors, creditors, managers and also accountants and auditors become more and more important. In that way, the Russian accounting and financial reporting develop, approaching international standards. As transition economies go through the process of shedding their centrally planned accounting model and replacing it with a market oriented model that uses international standards they face a number of problems. Very few people know the new rules, since the international standards must first be translated into their language. Accountants who can read the international standards promulgated by the International Accounting Standards Board and its predecessor, the International Accounting Standards Committee in the original English have a competitive advantage in this regard, but trying to fully exploit this advantage may be frustrating if potential clients or employers do not place much value on international standards. There is also an inertia barrier to overcome. It is difficult to change the status quo (Friedman Friedman 1984). Accountants and managers who have been using the old system for 20 or 30 years do not want to change because they feel comfortable with the system they lear ned in school or on the job when they were young. Those individuals also happen to be the people who are now in charge of enterprises and accounting departments, so their approval must be had before any new system can be adopted and implemented. 2.1.1. International Standards in Russia As we know from our previous readings, accounting is part of the legislative system. That is a problem because Russia will never have true international standards if government has to legislate it. There will always be a lag and style and language problems. The original plan by the Russian Finance Ministry in 1998 was to adopt all IAS by 2000. That did not happen. The new target for full adoption and implementation is 2004, at least in the case of banks and publicly traded companies. However, that target is also unlikely to be met. In fact, not a single accountant interviewed thought that international standards would be fully adopted and implemented by 2004. One accountant estimated that full implementation would take ten years (RobertW. Galina G., 2004) In the case of the standard on impairment, many Russian companies and their accountants do not want to apply the impairment rules because many companies have assets that are overvalued. Applying the impairment standard would cause the asset side of the balance sheet to shrink, considerably in many cases, and they do not want that to happen. In extreme cases, a company that appears healthy could appear to be insolvent if the impairment rules were applied. This hesitancy is not unique to Russia. The same situation exists in Republika Srpska, the Serbian part of Bosnia, and in other formerly centrally planned economies. Perhaps the main reason why the standard on financial instruments has not been adopted is lack of demand. Very few Russian enterprises use complex financial instruments, and the ones that do are already applying the IAS or U.S. GAAP on this topic. Also, this standard is difficult to understand and many Russian accountants are not eager to make the effort to learn a standard that they probably will not use in the foreseeable future. Another point that could be made about Russias adoption of international standards is that even the standards that have been adopted may not always be international standards. For example, the Russian standard on income taxes is based on the old version of the IAS income tax standard, not the new one. This fact is known within much of the Russian accounting community but may not be as well known outside of Russia. Another, less well known fact about Russias accounting standards is that the Russian versions of the standards that have been adopted are not mere translations of the English language originals. In many cases they are abbreviated, simplified versions of the original English language IAS. RAS tend to be much shorter, more detailed and conceptual. They cover a fraction of the content of IAS. In short, it may not be accurate to state that Russia has adopted IAS. It would be more descriptive to say that Russian accounting standards are merely based on IAS. Often the differences between RAS and IAS are not large or important. However, the difference may be substantial, such as in the area of accruals principles. Another reason why RAS will never be identical to the international standards is because there is a timing lag between the time a new international standard is issued in the UK and the time that new standard is translated into Russian and adopted as part of the Russian accounting rules. This lag could be overcome if the Russian Duma made it a rule that all new international accounting standards will automatically and immediately become part of the Russian rules. However, the Duma will never make such a rule, for reasons of national pride and sovereignty. So the lag will be permanent, even though there is a theoretical solution that would correct this lag. The degree to which the Russian accounting community understands the international standards depends on several factors. The Russian translation of the original English version of the standards was not available until late 1998. The translation was mediocre, in some respects. Part of the problem was because there were no Russian terms to convey some of the concepts. In other cases, the Russian translators simply used the wrong word or said things in such a way as to make the sentence or phrase unintelligible. In at least one case, the translator left out the word not, with the result that the Russian version of the standard instructed the reader to do something, when in fact the English version of the rule said not to do something. These kinds of mistakes and imperfections are to be expected the first time a technical document is translated, especially in cases where no terms exist for some of the words and ideas that need to be translated. The Russian accountants who cannot read English are limited to reading the Russian translation of the international standards. That places them at a competitive disadvantage, for the reasons mentioned above. The Russian translation is mediocre in some places and in other places is downright incorrect. The Russian speaking accountant has no way of knowing how accurate the reading of a particular sentence or paragraph might be, but must rely on what is written because there is no other alternative. Russian accountants who were educated in a university that did not teach the international standards have a problem reading the international standards in any language because the standards contain concepts that the Russian accountant was never exposed to during the years at the university. Such accountants must learn the new rules as best they can, either by self-study or by attending some lectures or seminars on the various topics. Another reason why the accountants in the outlying regions are not as knowledgeable about international standards as are the big city accountants is due to differences in demand. Most clients that need statements prepared according to international standards are in Moscow or St. Petersburg. A few big enterprises are scattered around other parts of Russia, mostly in the bigger cities. The accountants who service smaller clients have little or no need to know the international standards, so they do not take the time to learn them. The result is a two-tier system where the accountants and the employees who work for their clients in Moscow or St. Petersburg know at least something about international standards, whereas their counterparts in the outlying regions know less, or perhaps nothing about international standards. 2.1.2. Developing Russian Accounting Standards (RAS) and Establishing IFRS in Russia As Valeria Petrovets (2006) mentioned in his study, during the first period after break up Soviet Union, not much happened with the accounting system as the government was occupied with other, more important, issues. From 1993, the balance sheet, and from 1996, all financial reports were made in net figures according to international practice. In 1994 the Ministry of Finance approved the first accounting standard and marked the beginning of new Russian Accounting Standards (RAS). The Federal Law On Accounting was issued at the end of 1996. A new free market economy demanded further changes in the Russian accounting system and in March 1997 an order for an accounting reform program was signed by Yeltsin. One of the important parts of the program was the development of RAS in compliance with IAS (Yegorov, L., 2002). Until year 2006, it had been of work in transition to IFRS: there were 22 new accounting standards approved (which were written on IFRS basis), the Institute of Professional Accountants and the fund National Organization for Accounting and Financial Reporting were founded, a number of legal codes in this area were approved and the first official IFRS Russian translation was made. Until 2004, using the IFRS was voluntary. Subsequent reformation of the national accounting leads to legislated regulation of the financial reporting according to the IFRS. At the end of 2003 the Central Bank issued a directive which obliges all banks to represent their consolidated financial statements for 2004 according to IFRS. At the first stage the statement according to IFRS should be represent to the Central Bank together with Russian financial reporting. In 2007, a complete bank system transition to IFRS and abandonment of the national standards is planned. In (2004) the Ministry of the Finance of the Russian Federation approved The Conceptual for accounting and finance reporting development in the Russian Federation on medium-term perspective, which defines the main directions of transaction to finance reporting according to the IFRS for Russian companies. The Conception raises the question of the necessity for the legislated approval of the IFRS. It is supposed that consolidated accounts, made according to the IFRS, will get the legislated status. The Conception provides two stages in the transaction: I stage: 2004-2007 Compulsory transition to IFRS of consolidated accounts for companies of major national interest, except for those companies listed on other stock exchanges and which prepare their financial reports according to other international standards (for example, US GAAP). Approval of the Russian financial reporting standards for legal persons, prepared on the basis of the IFRS. II stage: 2008-2010 Compulsory transition to the IFRS of consolidated accounts for the other companies, including companies, listed on other stock exchanges and which prepare their financial reports according to other international standards. 2.1.3. National Accounting Differences Accounting differences In presentation, recognition, and measurement In perception, and interpretation Different accounting principles Different objectives of financial reporting Country-specific social, economic, and cultural environment Figure (1): Reasons for International Accounting Problems Accounting differences between different countries depend on what purpose the country has with the financial reporting if the information is intended mainly for present and potential investors or for tax authorities and creditors. Interested parties of a companys annual report are also employees, suppliers, clients and other organizations. With the help of financial statements, users receive information that they need and companies are ready to present. The different purposes of financial reporting are primarily influenced by economic, social and cultural factors. One of the important cultural variables is the means used for financial reporting regulation: because of this, if change is triggered in two countries at the same time by the same event, the means chosen for regulating may be different. In addition, different countries have different attitudes about how the legislations are followed. It is believed that cultural differences affect accounting. Nevertheless, it can be difficult to apply them to the measurement of accounting differences. More direct links can be established between accounting, legal and accounting systems. Accounting principles are formed in accordance with the purpose a company has with its financial reporting and that can be significant for the way in which balance and income statements are formulated. The differences in accounting principles can also lead to identical or similar operations and transactions being evaluated and accounted differently, thus showing a different annual profit. Motivation of the study The main purpose of my study is to investigate how the process of IFRS adoption for the national accounting system develops in Russia. And also, there is some additional purposes that I am going to study are to show how Russia works with the reformation of its accounting system, how the historic and economic development affected accounting and financial reporting. As well as to define obstacles and problems which the country in general, and separate companies, in particular, have come across in connection with IFRS implementation. The project paper is written with the intention to contribute to the picture of international harmonization of financial reporting and how far Russia has advanced for IFRS implementation. This study might be interesting for those who are interested in international questions and international accounting. Objectives of the study The objective of this study is to find out what problems do Russian non banking companies have in connection with IFRS implementation. And also to determine how the countrys historical and cultural background affects their transaction to IFRS. Literature of the study As it has been known from previous studies, so many researchers have been written about International Accounting Standards (IAS), International Standards on Auditing (ISA), accounting harmonization, accounting education and accounting reform in transition economies in recent years. A few books and articles have focused on accounting reform in Russia. An early study by Mills and Brown (1966) discussed how shifting from a production model to a profitability accounting model would help Soviet enterprise managers make decisions that would increase the efficiency of their firms and help them to better allocate resources. In a similar vein, Thornton (1983) discussed changes in the way the Soviets accounted for factor costs over a twenty-five year period. A study by Scott (1969) stated that Soviet accounting after the 1965 reforms started to place more emphasis on enterprise profitability, which helped move the Soviet economy closer to a Western market model. Other authors have also touched on this theme. Horwitz (1970) discussed the effect that decentralization has on the management accounting control system. Chastain (1982) described how the Soviet accounting system was not able to keep up with the needs of enterprise managers. He also assesses the implications of that inability for the accounting profession. Turk and Garrod (1996) discussed the lessons Slovenia learned when it began the process of changing to International Accounting Standards. The Slovenian experience is not unlike the Russian experience in many ways. Preobragenskaya and McGee did research on the relationship between IAS and foreign direct investment (FDI) in Russia (2003a) and on the state of auditing in Russia (2003b). Their FDI study concluded that the lack of credibility of Russian financial statements was hampering inflows of foreign capital. Their audit study found that the state of auditing in Russia is not yet up to western standards. A few studies have been made on accounting education in Eastern Europe or the former Soviet Union. According to one scholar, Houghton Mifflins 1300-page Principles of Accounting was the first Western accounting text sold in the Soviet Union (Collingwood 1991). It was translated and distributed by Finansy I Statistika, Moscows government owned publisher. Kobrack and Feldman (1991) speculated whether the reform process in the Soviet economy could create a new market for accounting textbooks. McGee has written about educating accounting professors in Bosnia Herzegovina (2003a) and reforming accounting education in Armenia (2003b). There are several sources of information on recent developments in accounting reform in Russia. The International Center for Accounting Reform in Moscow [www.icar.ru/] publishes the ICAR Newsletter. The World Bank publishes Transition Newsletter, which gives current information about various aspects of market reforms in transition economies, including accounting reform in Russia. The Russian websites of the Big-Four accounting firms also have current information and, in some cases, publications. The Deloitte Touche Russian website has an e-library link that contains a variety of items on various aspects of doing business in Russia. It has a Doing Business in Russia Online Guide, which includes much information on accounting and tax topics. It has several newsletters that address accounting, tax and legislative issues on various countries, including Russia. Russia Legislative News is a monthly newsletter that contains accounting and tax items. Legislative Tracking is a daily publication that keeps readers abreast of Russian pending legislation. Ernst Young publishes An EYe on Russia, a monthly newsletter on current business, accounting and tax issues. It also has a Russian Legislation website that contains downloadable documents on Russian accounting, tax and related legislation that have been translated into English. There are various strands in the literature on international accounting harmonization which cover such areas as: the degrees of harmonization (Tay and Parker, 1990; Emenyonu and Gray, 1996; Murphy, 2000), whether international accounting harmonization is appropriate (Hove, 1986; Cairns, 1997: Flower, 1997) and the degree of compliance with IFRS (Cairns, 2001; Street and Gray, 2001). Most of the relevance of this study on the implementation of IFRS would seem to be the research on the appropriateness of IFRS for developing or transitional economies, the practical implications of implementing IFRS within a country located in the continental European tradition of accounting and research on the changes to national accounting in transitional economies. In his 1998 study, based on a review of the literature on accounting and developing countries, Nobes noted various points about the appropriateness of IFRS for developing countries. Nobes talked about developing countries but Russia is a developed country and at the same time keeps on developing. He suggested that given the likely users of most enterprise financial statements in developing countries were the tax authorities and owners and lenders to private enterprises, adopting IFRS in developing countries, where IFRS are stated to be investor oriented (IASB, 2003; F9), may not be appropriate. In particular many of the later IAS (IAS 22-38) might not be relevant for presenting accounting information for taxation purposes. Nobes also suggested that, given the lack of a developed accountancy profession to interpret and apply the more judgmental aspects of IFRS (either as auditors or accountants), there could also be issues of the reliability of accounting information. Though he provid ed examples, he did not make explicit that this could be a particular issue for any accounting information based to a large extent on market data such as fair value (Nobes, 1998a). Further research on transitional economies has indicated structural issues with a lack of active stock markets, and corruption, which may affect the reliability of IFRS financial statements and estimations of fair values (EBRD, 2000; Sucher and Bychkova, 2001). However, much change has been state sponsored, rather than spontaneous, and the Ministry of Finance has continued to play a key role (Seal et al., 1995). This may therefore indicate that change may be very slow. Garrod and McLeay (1996) also highlighted how governments have adapted the previous state-controlled accounting systems to meet the envisaged demands of new users as well as state demands for tax collection and dealt with the general issues of conflicting objectives for financial reporting. They comment on the problems of establishing the right balance between state and professional involvement in the regulation of accounting and the difficulties that have arisen in valuation of assets, in the absence of fully functioning markets, and the scope of financial statements (Garrod and McLeay, 1996). In much of the previous research there has been an emphasis on the de jure situation with accounting change in Central Europe, and less focus on the de facto situation which might be quite different (as suggested by Bailey, 1995). There is a need for further research on the actual operation of financial reporting within enterprises to ensure that any implementation process pays due regard to the de facto situation rather than merely the de jure situation. There has also been a tendency in the academic research to study individual countries as comprising enterprises all with similar financial reporting objectives. However, within a country there are different groups of enterprises with different reporting objectives depending on their size, funding and ownership structure. Indeed, some authors have suggested that, within the classification literature, there may be different types of accounting systems in operation in any one country (Nobes, 1998b). This could be taken further to suggest that there are different groups of professional auditors and accountants trained under different reporting systems (e.g. some auditors trained under an international system of exams in accounting; some under a local examination system). Any research on the changes to national accounting should reflect this diversity of needs and resources. The Big Four audit firms have played a large role in the move to IFRS around the world, as they are often the auditors of IFRS statements and they have the large resources needed to maintain appropriate knowledge and expertise in IFRS. There has been relatively little research on their role in transitional economies (though Seal et ai, 1995, and Sucher and Alexander, 2002, are exceptions and some concerns about their roles are raised in some of the World Bank reports). Some consideration needs to be given to their role in the move to IFRS within the transitional economies. The literature suggests that there may be contextual factors which affect the appropriateness and effectiveness of the implementation of IFRS in a transitional economy such as the Russian Federation. These factors may be divided into the position of the Ministry of Finance in initiating and implementing reform; the role of the particular users of financial statements, and the relationship between financial reporting and taxation which in turn may relate to the national tradition in accounting (Anglo Saxon versus continental European). Then it is suggested that there are specific factors which may affect the effectiveness of and the ability to implement IFRS: differences between local and IFRS accounting standards, particular issues with individual IFRS and the reliability and availability of market data for fair values, and the approach to enforcing compliance, with particular regard to the role of auditors. There may also he additional factors concerning how the IFRS are translated and the extent of education and training in IFRS. Summarize, critically evaluation of the articles, conclusion and suggestions From the above literature reviews we can summarize the followings. In order to evaluate a study, a thorough analysis of the sources is in place. As earlier described, most of the written sources were used for theoretical background. The authors and their books are well-known and widely used for social studies similar to this study. The newer written sources that have been taken from the Internet have come from magazines, newspapers and portals associated with accounting issues and were chosen out of a greater selection. Accounting is one of the spheres that has been transformed since the beginning of the 1990s. Its reformation and supervision have been executed by various governmental bodies, although considerable resources from international organizations have also been attracted to the process. The adoption of national standards based on IFRS was chosen as the vehicle for change. But change occurs slowly and the country is huge. There is a lag between the time standards are adopted and the time they are implemented. Some of the reasons are the lack of demand for quality information, mostly from inside users of financial information, and the mentality and education level of the majority of accountants and educators in accounting. This situation may be understandable for a country that is in transition and that existed in the absence of freedom and market relationships for many decades. From the authors point of view, from the options under consideration, the preferred option toward the transition to IFRS is to make it compulsory to provide IFRS statements for companies that are in the zone of public interest. It is not necessary to have Russian Financial Statements for such companies. For other companies it can be left up to them which rules, if any, to use for their financial statements. There are several problems with forcing IFRS down the throats of any segment of the accounting and financial community. On e structural problem is the difficulty of harmonizing the legislative branch so that the various players are on the same field. There is a lack of coordination between or among the various parties. There is a serious lack of high quality consultants on IFRS implementation. All these factors do not help in the transition to IFRS. If Russia is to succeed in transforming its economy into something where markets dominate, it will have to overcome these barriers. But force is not required. Markets are the absence of force. Markets are just voluntary exchange. Markets develop naturally when no one prevents anyone else from trading what he has for what he wants. It seems illogical to use force to implement markets. There is some evidence

Prisoner :: essays research papers

The courage and human compassionate that Daru showed towards the Arab prisoner is commendable on all levels. Some people might have considered Daru justified in neglecting and even abusing the prisoner. Instead he treats the man as a guest. He provides him with adequate food and shelter and even comfortable amenities. The two men live in friendly cohabitation for the prisoner's entire stay at Daru's house. One would assume that the prisoner was reasonably terrified at his capture and was extremely uncomfortable being away from his home and his family. Instead of making the situation worse by treating the prisoner as an animal, Daru made the prisoner's captivity almost comfortable (if imprisonment could be called such a thing.) Instead of punishing the prisoner for his past wrongs, which might have made him bitter and violent, Daru rehabilitated the prisoner. He taught him values such as patience, kindness, and generosity from example. His success in doing so was illustrated through the prisoner's decision to attend his trial instead of going to live freely with the nomads. Daru treated the prisoner as a man, with dignity, and not as an animal; thus, this was exactly how the man acted. He made the right moral choice because he had learned good morals from the schoolteacher.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the end of the story, Daru's life is threatened by the kin of the very person he protected; it appears as if his kindness has gone unmerited. This, perhaps, is true in an earthly sense. However, there are martyrs for every cause, and it is said that martyrs hold a special place in heaven. In a sense, Daru can die with the satisfaction of knowing that he made a difference in the life of one person. While some may consider this a minuscule consolation in the face of death, it is exactly the kind of thing that would be most important to someone with such high moral standards as Daru. He was taking a risk in treating a prisoner with kindness; he was taking a greater risk in giving the prisoner the option to go free.

Pride and Prejudice :: essays research papers fc

Pride and Prejudice Pride and Prejudice has many ways to make you laugh, but at the same time this novel makes you think. The character that I thought caused the most thoughtful laughter was Miss Bingley and her admiration of Mr. Darcy. When she was first introduced into the story she thought she was so much better than the families in the area, but it was at the second dance that she made her feelings known to Mr. Darcy, who by this time already had his eye on Elizabeth.  ¡Ã‚ ° I was never more annoyed! The insipidity and yet the noise; the nothingness and yet the self-importance of all these people! ¡Ã‚ ± (19)*. I laughed when I thought of Miss Bingley ¡Ã‚ ¯s family and how they started out as working class people, they were just more successful at it than most. Miss Bingley makes many personal attacks on Elizabeth ¡Ã‚ ¯s character, most of which are disregarded by Mr. Darcy. Elizabeth walking to Netherfield to visit Jane when she was ill gave Miss Bingley occasion to make one of her nasty com ments to Darcy,  ¡Ã‚ °I am afraid, Mr. Darcy, ¡Ã‚ ­ that this adventure has rather affected your admiration of her fine eyes. ¡Ã‚ ±(26)* Darcy told Miss Bingley how wrong she was, as well as praising Elizabeth . Miss Bingley works very hard on complimenting Darcy on everything he does, she makes quite a silly fool of herself by doing so. Mr. Darcy brushes aside her attentions as frequently as she gives them. When he is writing a letter to his sister during he first stay at Netherfield, she showers him with praise and he seems most annoyed with her continuous talking. From this readers point of view she tries so hard to attain her goal of acquiring his affections, that in fact she earns his disdain. Miss Bingley continues in her assaults on Elizabeth's appearance and character, and in doing so lowers herself in Darcy esteem even further.  ¡Ã‚ °How very ill Eliza Bennet looks this morning ¡Ã‚ ­I must confess for my own part I could never see any beauty in her ¡Ã‚ ­and in h er air altogether, there is a self-sufficiency without fashion, which is intolerable ¡Ã‚ ­  ¡Ã‚ ®She a beauty!-I should have soon have called her mother a wit. ¡Ã‚ ¯ But afterwards she seemed to improve on you, and I believe you thought her rather pretty at one time. ¡Ã‚ ±(200-201)* This was not the best method of recommending herself to Darcy, but angry and jealous people are not always insightful when it comes to others feelings.

The Atomic Bomb and Radiation Essay -- Weapons Health Science Papers

The Atomic Bomb and Radiation Radiation as a carcinogen was first established in December 1895 after Roentgen’s discovery of X-rays. In 1902, the first radiation induced cancer was reported emerging from an ulcerated area of the skin. By 1911, a large number of these such skin cancers were reported as well as the first report of leukemia occurring in five radiation workers (Little 2000). Following these discoveries, large-scale tumor induction studies were carried out in animal models over the following 30 years. These studies elucidated many of the general characteristics of radiation carcinogenesis. With the explosion of the atom bomb in Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, scientists were given the opportunity to examine the effects of radiation in a natural experiment that effected a broad range of subjects. The population of atomic bomb survivors represents a wide range of ages as well as both sexes, a group comparable to that of the general population. The Japanese atomic bomb survivor Life Span Study (LSS) cohort is the principal source of data used to estimate the risks of radiation-related cancer (Little et al 1999). In 1978, the original dose estimates were reassessed and now appear in a complete publication called the DS86-Dosimetry System 1986 ((Klaassen). The four main types of radiation are alpha particles, beta particles and positrons, gamma rays and x-rays. These atoms can decay through the loss of a positively or negatively charged electron. The release of excess energy from the nucleus, usually after an alpha, beta or positron transition results in gamma radiation. X-ray radiation is released whenever an inner-shell orbital electron is removed and a rearrangement of the remaining atomic electrons takes plac... ...of Radiation on Incidence of Primary Liver Cancer among Atomic Bomb Survivors Radiation Research 1999 152:364-373 Kai, m., Luebeck, E.G., Moolgavkar, S.H. Analysis of the Incidence of Solid Cancer among Atomic Bomb Survivors Using a Two-Stage Model of Carcinogenesis Radiation Research 1997 148:348-358 Klaassen, Cutris D. Casarett & Doull’s Toxicology: The Basic Science of Poisons Fifth Edition 1999 Little, J.B. Radiation carcinogenesis Carcinogenesis 21(3):397 Little, M.P., Muirhead, C.R., Haylock, R.G.E., Thomas, J.M. Relative Risks of radiation-associated cancer: comparison of second cancer in therapeutically irradiated populations with the Japanese atomic bomb survivors Radiat Environ Biophys 1999 38:267-283 Pierce, D.A., Mendelsohn, M.L. A Model for Radiation-Related Cancer Suggested by Atomic Bomb Survivor Data Radiation Research 1999 152:642-654

Financial Engineering

Financial Engineering Introduction Many innovations are taking place in the place of arena of finance. Such innovations are collectively called financial innovation. Financial innovation is a process to adapt existing financial instruments and processes and to develop new one so as to enable financial market participants to cope more effectively with the changing world. In recent years fast developments are taking place in corporate and banking sectors. This has given birth to a new discipline which has come to called financial engineering.The term financial engineering was introduced by London banks. Financial engineering is the life blood of financial innovation. Financial Engineering Financial engineering  is a multidisciplinary field involving financial theory, the methods of engineering, the tools of mathematics and the practice of programming. [1]  It has also been defined as the application of technical methods, especially from  mathematical finance  and  computation al finance, in the practice of  finance. In the United States, financial engineering programs are accredited by the  International Association of Financial Engineers.Financial engineering draws on tools from  applied mathematics,  computer science,  statistics  and  economic theory. In broadest definition, anyone who uses technical tools in finance could be called a financial engineer, for example any  computer programmer  in a  bank  or any  statistician  in a government economic bureau. However, most practitioners restrict the term to someone educated in the full range of tools of modern finance and whose work is informed by financial theory. It is sometimes restricted even further, to cover only those originating new financial products and strategies.Financial Engineering refers to the bundling and unbundling of securities. This is done in order to maximize profits using different combinations of equity, futures, options, fixed income, and swaps. They ap ply theoretical finance and computer modeling skills to make pricing, hedging, trading and portfolio management decisions. Financial Engineers are prepared for careers in: * Investment Banking * Corporate Strategic Planning * Risk Management * Primary and Derivatives Securities Valuation * Financial Information Systems Management Portfolio Management * Security Trading Tools of financial engineering * Conceptual Tools It includes ideas and concepts on which finance as a subject is based. These includes valuation theory, portfolio theory, hedging theory, tax treatment etc. * Physical tools It includes the instruments and processes which can be combined together to accomplish some specific purposes. Factors contributing to the growth of Financial Engineering * Environmental Factors (External Factors) A) Change in price level B) Globalization of marketsC) Technological advancement D) Differential tax rates * Internal Factors A) Liquidity needs B) Risk aversion C) Agency Costs D) Accoun ting benefits Financial Reengineering Financial reengineering is the concept of 21st century. Really speaking, it is an evolving concept. It is an extension of financial engineering. Newer and newer developments are taking place now in finance and related fields. Hence the existing instruments and processes must reengineer to suit the changing environment. This gives birth to financial reengineering.